Материал: A grammar of the english language

§ 2. The use of the Present Indefinite.

The Present Indefinite is used to denote:

1. Customary, repeated actions. This is its most characteristic use.
The Browns go to the seaside every summer.
The repeated character of the action is often shown by adverbials such as every day, often, usually, etc.

2. Actions and states characterizing a given person.
She has many accomplishments: she sings and plays the piano beautifully.
3. Universal truths, something which is eternally true.
Magnet attracts iron.

The earth rotates round its axis.
4. Actions going on at the present moment (with verbs not used in the Continuous form).
I see George in the street. Tell him to come in.

I hear somebody knock. Go and open the door.
5. A future action:

(a) in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as, as long as, if, unless, on condition that, provided.
...Robert, will you mend me a pen or two before you go? (Ch. Bronte)

I promise not to try to see Robert again till he asks for me. (Ch. Bronte)
N o t e. — It should be borne in mind that this use of the Present Indefinite

occurs only in adverbial clauses of time and condition. In object and

attributive clauses introduced by when the Future Indefinite is used.
I wonder when he will give us an answer.

We are impatiently awaiting the day when our friends will return from their

long journey.
(b) with verbs of motion, such as to go, to come, to leave etc. The future action is regarded as something fixed.
The train leaves at 10 tomorrow.
We find the same phenomenon in Russian.
Он уезжает завтра.

В следующее воскресенье мы идем в театр.
THE PAST INDEFINITE
§ 3. The formation of the Past Indefinite.

1. The Past Indefinite is formed by adding ‑ed or ‑d to the stem (regular verbs), or by changing the root vowel, or in some other ways (irregular verbs).

(For detailed treatment see The Verb, § 3.)

2. The interrogative and the negative forms are formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to do (did) and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I worked (wrote) He worked (wrote) She worked (wrote) We worked (wrote) You worked (wrote) They worked (wrote)	Did I work (write)? Did he work (write)? Did she work (write)? Did we work (write)? Did you work (write)? Did they work (write)?	I did not work (write) He did not work (write) She did not work (write) We did not work (write) You did not work (write) They did not work (write)

3. The contracted negative forms are:
I didn’t work

She didn’t work
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Did you not work?

Didn’t you work?
§ 4. The use of the Past Indefinite.

The Past Indefinite denotes an action performed within a period of time which is already over. The action is cut off from the present. The time of the action may be indicated by adverbials of past time, such as yesterday, a week ago, last year, etc.
The sun came out a moment ago.

Miss Helstone stayed the whole evening. (Ch. Bronte)

Ellean breakfasted two hours ago, and then went out walking with the dog.

(Pinero)
The Past Indefinite can correspond to the Russian past perfective and past imperfective (совершенный и несовершенный вид).
Не smoked a cigarette and left the room (выкурил).

He smoked in silence for a few minutes (курил).
The translation depends on the context and the lexical character of the verb.

The Past Indefinite is used to denote:

(a) an action performed in the past.
We entered Farmer Ridley’s meadow in silence. (Marryat)
(b) a succession of past actions.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past perfective.
He threw down his spade and entered the house. (Ch. Bronte)

Он бросил лопату и вошел в дом.
(c) repeated actions in the past.

In this case the Past Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.
He made an entry in his diary every night. (Bennett)

Каждый вечер он делал запись в дневнике.
N o t e. — Repeated actions are often expressed by used to +Infinitive and would +Infinitive. Used to is more colloquial and would is more literary.
Every afternoon, when the children came from school, they used to go and

play in the Giant’s garden. (Wilde)

When fits of melancholy came upon him, he would spend all days locked in

his room. (E. Bronte)
Sometimes used to does not denote repeated actions, but actions characterizing a person or actions or states which lasted a long time.
The Reed used to like the rain. (Wilde)

There used to be an old oak-tree near the house.
THE FUTURE INDEFINITE
§ 5. The formation of the Future Indefinite.

1. The Future Indefinite is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Shall is used for the first person singular and plural. Will is used for the second and the third person singular and plural.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I shall work He will work She will work We shall work You will work They will work	Shall I work? Will he work? Will she work? Shall we work? Will you work? Will they work?	I shall not work He will not work She will not work We shall not work You will not work They will not work

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’ll work

You’ll work
The contracted negative forms are:
I shan’t [SRnt] work

He won’t [wqunt] work
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Shall we not work?

Shan’t we work?
{Will he not work?

Won’t he work?
§ 6. The use of the Future Indefinite.

The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action.
I am tired. I shall go and have a nap before dinner. (Galsworthy)

It will be much cooler up at Fiesole. (Voynich)
N o t e. — To denote a future action the word combinations to be going +

Infinitive, to be about + Infinitive, and to be on the point of + Gerund are

often used.
To be going to, to be about to, to be on the point of denote an action which is expected to take place in the nearest future. To be going to is colloquial, to be on the point of is literary.
This is going to be a cheerful evening. (Shaw)

The runners are about to start.
The Future Indefinite is rendered in Russian by the future perfective and imperfective.
I shall read ten chapters tomorrow.

Завтра я прочту десять глав.

I shall read the whole day tomorrow.

Завтра я буду читать целый день.
THE FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST
§ 7. The formation of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

1. The Future Indefinite in the Past is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs should, and would

and the infinitive without to of the notional verb.

Should is used for the first person singular and plural.

Would is used for the second and the third person singular and plural.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I should work He would work She would work We should work You would work They would work	Should I work? Would he work? Would she work? Should we work? Would you work? Would they work?	I should not work He would not work She would not work We should not work You would not work They would not work

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’d work

He’d work
The contracted negative forms are:

I shouldn’t work

He wouldn’t work
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Should I not work?

Shouldn’t I work?
{Would he not work?

Wouldn’t he work?
§ 8. The use of the Future Indefinite in the Past.

The Future Indefinite in the Past denotes an action which was future from the point of view of the past.
I was sure he would agree with me.
(For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.)
THE CONTINUOUS FORM
The Continuous form denotes an action in progress at the present moment or at a given moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required tense and Participle I of the notional verb.
THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
§ 9. The formation of the Present Continuous.

1. The Present Continuous is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. (On the formation of Participle I see Chapter VIII, § 3.)

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I am reading He is reading She is reading We are reading You are reading They are reading	Am I reading? Is he reading? Is she reading? Are we reading? Are you reading? Are they reading?	I am not reading He is not reading She is not reading We are not reading You are not reading They are not reading

3. The contracted affirmative forms are:
I’m reading

She’s reading

We’re reading
The contracted negative forms are:
She isn’t reading

We aren’t reading
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
Am I not reading?
{Is she not reading?

Isn’t she reading?
{Are you not reading?

Aren’t you reading?
§ 10. The use of the Present Continuous.

1. The Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment. It should be borne in mind that the term ‘present moment’ is not limited to the actual moment of speaking. The Present Continuous is used when in Russian we can say сейчас (теперь), which refers not only to the moment of speaking, but has a wider meaning.
“My dear,” said Jolyon with gentle exasperation, “you are talking nonsense.”

(Galsworthy)

Robert is just now speaking to my uncle and they are shaking hands. (Ch.

Bronte)

How is Dartie behaving now? (Galsworthy)

Как Дарти ведет себя сейчас?

David Copperfield is not to be got. The second-year students are reading it.

«Давида Копперфильда» невозможно достать. Его теперь читают

студенты второго курса.
N o t e. — The Present Indefinite, not the Present Continuous, is used to

denote actions going on at the present moment when the fact is important and

not the process.
He did such a mean thing and you defend him.

Why don’t you read your examples?

Why do you look at me as if you had never seen me?

Why don’t you answer? Good God, John, what has happened? (Thackeray)
The Present Continuous can be used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment.
You are being a nuisance.

“You are being bitter,” said Karen. (Heym)
2. When there are two actions one of which is in progress and the other is a habitual action, the first is expressed by the Present Continuous and the second by the Present Indefinite.
You never open your lips while you are painting. (Wilde)

I never talk while I am working. (Wilde)
3. The Present Continuous is used to denote a future action with such verbs as to go, to come, to leave. The future action is regarded as something fixed.
I’m leaving tonight. (Abrahams)

He iscoming to us tomorrow to stop till next month. (Collins)
4. The Present Continuous is used to express a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, constantly, ever are used.
The earth is always moving.

The sun is ever shining.
5. The Present Continuous is used to express an action thought of as a continual process (with the adverbs always, ever, constantly). The action is represented as going on without any interval.
She is always grumbling.

“She is constantly thinking of you,” I said. (Wells)
The difference between case 4 and case 5 is as follows: what is said in No. 4 is literally true, whereas in No. 5 there is an element of exaggeration, because the action in this case cannot go on without intervals. The exaggeration is generally called forth by emotion.
THE PAST CONTINUOUS
§ 11. The formation of the Past Continuous.

1. The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb.

2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I was reading He was reading She was reading We were reading You were reading They were reading	Was I reading? Was he reading? Was she reading? Were we reading? Were you reading? Were they reading?	I was not reading He was not reading She was not reading We were not reading You were not reading They were not reading

3. The contracted negative forms are:
He wasn’t reading

They weren’t reading
4. The negative-interrogative forms are:
{Was he not reading?

Wasn’t he reading?
{Were they not reading?

Weren’t they reading?
§ 12. The use of the Past Continuous.

1. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action which was going on at a definite moment in the past.
It was twelve and he was still sitting, when the presence of Cowperwood was

announced. (Dreiser)
The definite moment is indicated either by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase.
When I returned,she was sweeping the floor. (Bennett)

At midnight

he was still working, though he was feeling ill and was longing

to go to bed.
The definite moment is often not expressed, but understood from the situation.
He did not notice what was going on around him — he was reading.
The Past Continuous is used to denote a certain state or quality peculiar to the person at a given moment in the past.
He knew he was being scientific and restrained. (Cronin)
2. The Past Continuous or the Past Indefinite is often used after such phrases as the whole day, all day long.
They were working in the garden all day long.

They worked in the garden all day long.
3. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action thought of as a continual process. In this case the adverbs always, ever, constantly are used. The Past Continuous in this use is often to be found in emotional speech.
She was constantly complaining of being lonely. (Shaw)

He was never able to look after his flowers at all, for his friend, the Miller,

was always coming round and sending him off on long errands or getting

him to help on the mill. (Wilde)
The Past Continuous is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective.
When I came home, she was cooking dinner.

Когда я вернулся, она готовила обед.
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS