The brain is the most wonderful organ in the human body. It consists of about 12 billion cells and weights about 1 kilogram. It is soft and spongy with 3 membranes and fluid in between the first and second membranes.
The brain is the center of a wide system of communication. It controls the body functions. It keeps all the body parts working together. Thousands of stimuli come into the brain through the spinal cord. The messages come to the brain from our eyes, ears and other sense organs for pain, temperature, smell and other feelings. All the stimuli are analyzed and then the brain sends orders through the spinal cord to different parts of the human body. Due to these orders we eat, move, hear, see and do many other things.
There are special areas in the brain which control vision, hearing, physical movements and even emotions.
Words: -
to weight - весить
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stimuli - мн.ч. побудители, стимулы, послания
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spinal cord - спинной мозг
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area - область
Ex.1 Find English equivalents. Найдите английские эквиваленты.Самый замечательный орган; состоит; весит; центр системы; функции организма; через спинной мозг; органы чувств; анализируются; посылает приказы; особые области в мозге.
Ex.2 Find Russian equivalents. Найдите русские эквиваленты.The human body; soft and spongy; fluid; through the spinal cord; stimuli are analyzed; sends orders; due to these orders.
Ex. 3 Answer the questions. Ответьте на вопросы:1. The brain is the most wonderful organ in the human body, isn´t in?
2. Is the brain soft and spongy?
3. What is the main function of the brain?
4. Do thousands messages come to the brain each minute?
5. Are the messages analyzed in the brain?
6. What does the brain send to different parts of the body?
7. Are there special areas in the brain? What do they control?
Text The skeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments and tendons. It shapes the body and protects organs. The skeletal system works with the muscular system to help the body move. Marrow, which is soft, fatty tissue that produces red blood cells, many white blood cells, and other immune system cells, is found inside bones.
The Spine. The spine is the central support for the body. Another word for the spine is the backbone. The spine is made of separate irregular bones called vertebrae. The vertebrae are made up of spongy or cancellate bone surrounded by a layer of compact bone. In between each vertebrae is a layer of cartilage that keeps the bones from rubbing against each other.
There are twenty six vertebrae in the spine. Although each vertebrae can only move a little bit, the total spine is very flexible. The spine of a human being is curved. Most other mammals have a straight spine. The curves allow the spine to support and balance the body on only two legs.
The breastbone, or the sternum, is linked to the bones which make up the ribs. The sternum is a flat bone that is about 6 inches long. The ribs curve around from the spine to the front of the body. This makes a bony framework which is known as the thoracic case. This case helps protect your chest.
Most people have 12 pairs of ribs. The ribs are connected to the sternum by cartilage. This makes the ribs more flexible, which is necessary during breathing. The first seven pairs of ribs are attached directly to the breastbone. The eighth, ninth and tenth pairs are attached to the sternum by a cartrilage band. The last two pairs of ribs are not attached to the sternum or cartilage. The last five pairs of ribs are called false ribs.
Hands & Feet. The bones of the hands and feet are flexible. The foot has twenty-six bones, one less than in the hand. The bones in the toes are shorter and fatter than the bones in the fingers. This helps us to balance on two feet.
The seven bones in the ankle are called tarsal bones. The main part of the foot is made of metatarsal bones. Phalanges are the bones in the toes. The arch in the foot helps to support the body's weight.
Each hand has twenty-seven separate bones. These are connected with muscles and tendons. Hand bones are also called the metacarpus. Just like the foot, the bones in the fingers are called phalanges.
The fingers have three phalanges and the thumb has two. These joints allow the finger to flex. Because of this, the human hand can make more precise and finer movements than other creatures.
Hips & Legs. The hip bones help us stand upright and move. They support much of the body's weight. Each hip is made up of three bones. These bones are called the ilium, ischium, and pubis. When you are born, these three bones are separated. As you get older, they begin to join together.
The main bones of the legs are the femur, tibia and fibula. Another name for the femur is the thigh bone. The femur extends from the hip joint to the knee This is the longest bone in the body.
The tibia and fibula are the bones of the lower leg. As it helps to support the body's weight, the tibia is the strongest bone in the body. The thinner bone is the fibula and helps to control the movement of the ankle. Another name for the fibula is the shin bone.
The bone that is at the middle of the leg is the patella, or knee cap.
Words:
1. bone – кость
2. ligament - связка
3. tendon – сухожилие
4. muscular system - мышечная система
5. spine - позвоночник
6. vertebra - позвонок
7. cartilage - хрящ
8. curved - изогнутый
9. rib – ребро
10. breastbone - грудина, грудная кость
11. sternum - грудная кость
12. flexible - гибкий
13. ankle - лодыжка
14. femur- бедро
15. tibia- большая берцовая кость
16. fibula –малая берцовая кость
17. coccyx- копчик
18. hip bone - тазовая кость
19. sacrum - крестец
20. ulna,- локтевая кость
21. radius – лучевая кость
22. humerus – плечевая кость
23. elbow- локоть
24. wrist – запястье
Ex. 1. Find English equivalents. Найдите английские эквиваленты.
Придает форму телу, защищает органы, мягкая ткань, очень подвижен, позвоночник, позвонки, костный каркас, рёбра, грудина, необходимо во время дыхания, тазовая кость помогает, копчик, бедро, лодыжка, сустав.
Ex.2 Find Russian equivalents. Найдите русские эквиваленты.
Made up of bones, ligaments and tendons, twenty six vertebrae, to support and balance the body, the ribs curve around from the spine, are attached to the breastbone, the arch in the foot, to stand upright and move, very flexible, a hip bone, a coccyx, curved, an ulna.
Ex. 3. Answer the questions.
Ответьте на вопросы.
1. What is the skeletal system made up of?
2. What is the spine?
3. How many vertebrae are in the spine?
4. Is the spine of a human being curved?
5. Do the ribs curve around from the spine to the front of the body?
6. What are the main bones of the legs?
7. What bone is the longest in the body.
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The word «muscle», according to one theory, comes from a word that means «little mouse»: that is when a man's muscles are contracting they look as if a little mouse runs about under his skin. According to another theory the word «muscle» comes from a Greek expression that means «to enclose», that is layers of muscles enclose the body. We know that the muscles constitute about 50 per cent of total body weight, slightly more in the average male than the female. Tendons, fasciae and the various organs themselves depend on the muscular system and the function of muscle cells.
There are three main types of muscular tissue that we identify classify on the basis of structure and functions:
1) smooth or visceral muscle,
2) striated or skeletal muscle,
3) cardiac muscle.
Smooth muscles can contract slowly. They make up the walls of internal organs such as those of the blood vessels, and the digestive tract. Since we identify the internal organs as viscera, we sometimes call smooth muscles visceral muscles. The visceral muscles react relatively slowly to changes within the body and do so without the intervention of the will.
The walls of the blood vessels are contracting or expanding when they respond to certain chemicals in the blood or in response to the effect of temperature but we cannot deliberately cause them to lift our arm or open our mouth. For this reason, we may call them involuntary muscles. Smooth muscle tissue consists of long cells. Smooth muscle fibres are bound (связаны) into bundles by connective tissue which contain blood vessels and nerves.
Striated muscle tissue consists of large fibres in the form of bundles. Striated muscles are most necessary manipulation of the bones of the skeleton. Those are the muscles necessary for walking, running, turning the head and so on. That's why we sometimes call them skeletal muscles. This type of muscle tissue includes the large muscle masses of the body, the muscles of the arms, legs, back etc. It includes all those muscles which must react quickly to changes in the environment, i.e. those that become active through an effort of will. For this reason, we call striated muscles voluntary muscles.
Cardiac (heart) muscle is, in a sense, a cross between the previous two. A characteristic feature of cardiac muscle is that fibres have neither a beginning nor an end. In other words, the heart is simply a huge net of muscles in which all elements are continuous with each other. Cardiac muscles («heart» — Greek) have the strength and force of contraction of the skeletal muscle. Cardiac muscle is under complete involuntary control. In that, it resembles visceral muscle.
Ex.1 Find English equivalents. Найдите английские эквиваленты.
согласно одной теории; прилегать; 50% от общей массы тела; связки; сокращаются; без вмешательства воли; длинные клетки; изменения окружающей среды; поперечнополосатые мышцы; мышцы сердца; добровольный; напоминает.
Ex.2 Answer the questions.Ответьте на вопросы.
1. How many types of muscular tissue are there?
2. How do we sometimes call smooth muscles?
3. Smooth muscles can contract slowly, can’t they?
4. What is another name of striated muscles?
5. Are there any differences between cardiac and skeletal muscles? What are they?
6. Has cardiac muscle a beginning or an end?
Text
In Great Britain physicians are trained in medical schools or faculties of Universities.
To enter a medical school in Great Britain candidates must pass entrance examinations in oral form. Tuition fees are charged. Most students receive financial assistance in the form of grants.
The academic year is divided into 3 terms each of 10-11 weeks duration.
Two pre-clinical years are occupied by human anatomy, biology, biochemistry and other subjects.
Students attend lectures, do dissection and practical work in labs.
Beginning with the third year, students study the methods of clinical examinations and history–taking, they have practical training in teaching hospitals. Besides the work in the wards the students attend lectures and study clinical subjects.
After passing the finals students are given the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (B.M.)or Bachelor of Surgery (B.S.). Besides these degrees there is the degree of Doctor of Medicine (D.M.). This degree is a post graduate qualification obtained by a thesis.
Words: -
in oral form - в устной форме
2. tuition - обучение
3. fee - плата
4. fee for tuition - плата за обучение
5. charge - плата, расходы
6. assistance - помощь
7. grant - стипендия
8. dissection - препарирование
9. history taking - составление истории болезни( анамнез)
10. teaching hospital - клиническая база
11. ward - больничная палата
12. degree of Bachelor of Medicine - степень бакалавра медицины
13. degree of Doctor of Medicine - степень доктора медицины (хирурга)
Ex.1 Find English equivalents. Найдите английские эквиваленты.терапевты, факультет, семестр, посещают лекции; учебный год, оплачиваются, длительность, лаборатория, проходят практику, клинические предметы, начиная с 3-его курса, после сдачи госэкзаменов, диссертация.
Ex.3 Answer the questions.Ответьте на вопросы. 1. Where are doctors trained in G.B.?
2. What examinations is it necessary to pass?
3. Is education in G.B. charged?
4. How many terms has the academic year?
5. What subjects do the students study?
6. What degrees are given to students in G.B. after passing the finals?
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